The stoics take on the same ideas as the Cynics (defying social convention and living in accordance with nature), the 2 main rules the stoics follow: detachment from external circumstances and living in harmony with nature. Though defying convention was part of the Stoic fabric, it was adhered to in a more conservative fashion than their Cynic counterparts.

They sought the highest good which is virtue apatheia - A way of living that isn’t burdened by emotions. Achieving apatheia is having rational control of the emotions. The Stoics saw the passions as confused ideas that required reasoning to formulate them into distinct and clear ideas

How does this translate in practice? Reason gives you the ability to handle circumstances beyond your control, you gain a rational detachment to achieve the best possible situation for yourself. Cicero gives the following example, albeit, an extreme one: A virtuous man even while being tortured on the rack, his body mutilated and searing with pain, and isolated from all his family and friends, is maximally happy.

In terms of epistemology, The Stoics also take an empiricist approach and say that all that exists is particulars - there are no immaterial forces, anything we can learn from is material. Just like Hume, the Stoics deny innate ideas and contend that the mind is “tabula rasa”: a blank slate.

In a climate where Reason was the prevailing idea and was often underpinned by religious and spiritual doctrine, Rousseau sought to break away from this idea and placed the happiness of the human first.

His conception of the self is all to do with feeling and empathy; the self is distinctly moral and man is naturally good. None of his natural inclinations are bad - they are not harmful, illusory or contradictory. His desires are all proportioned to his needs and his faculties to his desires. And on a still deeper level, he has within himself a fundamental source of contentment and joy in merely existing.

Although man is free and morally good, he becomes corrupted by society. By living as part of a society, he is no longer a free man, he is a citizen, a participant that must adhere to the rules. Man is governed by laws and rules that takes away what it is to be human… “Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains”.

Kant attempts to establish a moral philosophy on how humans should live and how our actions are determined. He says that this can be established through reason. Empiricists such as Hume stated that reason cannot tell us what is right or wrong, it can yield no practical solution; we are a slave to our passions and nothing more.

The theory starts with the question “what is morality?” and “where does morality come from?”. Kant answers that it comes from the “good will” which is a person’s capacity to act out their intentions. So our moral theory begins by looking inwardly at ourselves and doing so by applying the faculty of reason. To put it simply, using reason allows us to ask if an action is good for me and good for others, narrowing down what is a good universal moral theory.

So if our moral theory comes from ourselves, then we have a duty to uphold it, there is nothing external that tells us what our morals should look like (so this excludes the idea of God as the law giver or looking outwards to external events such as making judgments based on consequences).

From this, Kant brings forward that this moral theory must be unconditional i.e. it must be good in every circumstance for every person. So how do we conclude what is a good moral value? Cue the categorical imperative which is as follows:

“act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law”

Or

“Can my moral principle that I choose to live by, work if everyone else followed it all the time”

For example I believe in the moral principle that everyone should tell the truth. If everyone followed this rule, can any bad come out of this? Are there any contradictions that mean that this principle is no longer good?

There is one other condition to consider when assessing our moral values: that it should not be subjective to the person. You must do away with your personal beliefs, happiness, sympathies, love or hate for others. It must be an objective value.

Utilitarianism is a principle where it's criteria for virtue lies in actions that maximise the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Bentham thinks that social problems can be remedied if we act according to this principle.For example, free universal healthcare is of benefit to everyone and conforms to the utilitarian theory that it is providing great happiness for as many people as possible. Whereas choosing to steal from everyone yields very little happiness for everyone and great happiness for the thief only.

This idea falls into the ancient theory of Epicureanism that says our actions should aim to maximise pleasure whilst reducing pain. Yet Bentham is emphasising that it's not just about pleasure but attaining justice.

Bentham's theory is founded from the most basic of human needs which is to seek pleasure and avoid pain and becomes the criteria for acting virtuously.

The ancient Greek philosopher Plato believed that Democracy was not the ideal system for society. To allow the public to participate in political matters leads to decisions based on self-interest and ignorance. Moreover, those that are in power are also capable of corruption and can manipulate public opinion. So what does the ideal society look-like? Plato’s solution is for society to be ruled by ‘Philosopher Kings’: Those that have the best understanding to lead the people, the greatest understanding of good and bad and show genuine concern for the welfare of the state and it’s citizens.

So how do you become a Philosopher King or Queen? Plato conceives of a system where children are chosen at a young age for their intelligence. They are then trained and carefully raised to become self-less, incorruptible and virtuous rulers.

What about the rest of the people? Plato splits society into 3 classes: The Rulers A.K.A the Philosopher Kings Guardians (Auxillaries): The warriors responsible for defending the state and enforcing the rules The rest: The everyday people, the producers of things, the members of society

With Philosopher Kings and Queens in place, society will experience what it is to be ruled justly and allow individuals to live the best life they can.